Hominid genus Ramapithecus named after Hindu deity Rama

While Australopithecus is seen as Early Man, Ramapithecus has been considered as the earliest hominid. Milford H. Wolpoff critically discussed and challenged this interpretation [1] and today different evolutionary possibilities are regarded: Ramapithecus as an ancestor of  Australopithecus (an ancestor of modern humans) or as an ancestor of the nonhominid orangutan [2].

Whatever ancestry, the namesake of Ramapithecus is the Hindu deity Rama. The first specimen was found by the Englishmen Guy Pilgrim in 1910, while searching for fossils in the Siwaliks Hills of India [3]. The anthropologist H. L. Shapiro writes how the “Hindu god nomenclature” was employed by following discoverers of related fossils: twenty-one years later, the Yale graduate student G. Edward Lewis found fossilized fragments at the same locality and named one specimen Brahmapithecus [3], after Brahma of the Hindu trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. What about Vishnupithecus and Shivapithecus? Well, there is the genus Sivapithecus, of which fossils had also been found in the Siwalik Hills [4,5].

Obviously, Hindu gods do not only inspire religious and philosophical thinking, but charmingly contribute to scientific terminology.  Not just fossils, but space objects have been named after Hindu deities as well, such a the trans-Neptunian object (TNO) Varna.

Keywords: Hominidae, Miocene hominids, human evolution, paleontology, anthropology, anatomy, history, nomenclature, systematics, hinduism.

References and more to explore
[1] Milford H. Wolpoff: Ramapithecus and Homind Origins. Current Anthropology October 1982, 23 (5), pp. 501-522 [www-personal.umich.edu/~wolpoff/Papers/Ramapith.pdf].
[2] encyclopedia.com >  Ramapithecus: www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Ramapithecus.aspx.
[3] Harry L. Shapiro: Peking Man. Simon and Schuster, New York, 1974 (paperback edition); pp. 117-119.
[4] Modern Human Origins > Sivapithecus: http://www.modernhumanorigins.com/sivapithecus.html.
[5] David R. Begun: Sivapithecus is east and Dryopithecus is west, and never the twain shall meet. Anthropological Science 2004 [anthropology.utoronto.ca/Faculty/Begun/eastwest.pdf].

Early names for “Early Man”

In the evolution chart of Homo sapiens, Australopithecines (hominids that lived about two to five million years ago) have their place before Homo erectus (about 200,000 to 2 million years ago, see Java Man) and “Neanderthal Man”  (about 45,000 to 200,000 years ago).  On the path from ape to man, Australopithecines were the first primates that walked in a bipedal manner broadly similar to that of  “Modern Man,”  as concluded from the scant fossil record [1]. Therefore, Australopithecines are often nicknamed “Early Man.”

The first Australopithecine fossils were discovered in 1924 near Taungs in South Africa: Raymond Dart (1893-1988) described the species and named it Australopithecus africanus, which means southern ape of Africa [2-4]. Ten years later the Scottish physician and paleontologist Robert Broom uncovered further Australopithecus fossils. Additional discoveries followed. Anthropologist H. L. Shapiro reports how all these exciting discoveries in Africa were enthusiastically announced to the scientific world by addressing Early Man with a parade of names: “Paranthropus robustus, Paranthropus crassidens, Plesianthropus transvaalensis, Australopithecus prometheus and Telanthropus capensisis” [4].  The reader will recognize references to African localities, mythology and anatomical characteristics in these names.

Shapiro writes how more names were added, for example Zinjanthropus boisei, known as “Zinj,” discovered in 1959 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanganyika, by members of the “Leakey dynasty.” But careful comparison of all  those variant types resulted in the recognition of mainly two Australopithecine species, differing by dental features and therefore by their diet: A. africanus and A. robustus [4]. Although they may have walked and chewed like humans today, they had much smaller brains, comparable to those of modern apes: early men and women probably didn't think about their names! 

Keywords: Hominidae, paleontology, anthropology, anatomy, history, nomenclature, systematics.

References and more to explore
[1] Edward O. Wilson: The Diversity of Life. W. W. Norton & Company, New York and London, 1999; page 52.
[2] Australopithecus africanus > History of Discovery [humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-africanus].
[3] Chrissy Duhn: Raymond Dart [www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/rdart.html].
[4] H. L. Shapiro: Peking Man. Simon and Schuster, New York, 1974 (paperback edition); pp. 113-116.

Pithecanthropus erectus named by Dutch physician Eugène Dubois after discovery of fossil remains on Java

The extinct hominid species Pithecanthropus erectus is known today as Homo erectus [1]. Fossilized bones of this species were found in the early 1890s by workers of Eugène Dubois, a Dutch Army medical officer, who searched for fossils in Java: the primate fossils including teeth, a lower jaw and an intact skullcap became known as Java Man [2].

Dubois published the discovery and a description of the fossils, which showed features between those of ape and human bones. He named the species associated with the fossil remains Pithecanthropus erectus: Pithecanthropus is derived from Greek and means “ape man.” The anthropologist H. L. Shapiro writes that “erectus was added [to the early scientific name] because the femur found near the skullcap was indistinguishable from that of modern man, its form and size indicating clearly that it was fully adapted for upright posture and a two-legged gait” [3]. However, it was disputed by some scholars if skull and femur came from the same individual.

The Java Man discovery triggered various speculations about human evolution via apes and man-apes. Following discoveries in China (Peking Man) and South Africa added further puzzle pieces to the study of human ancestry. Our understanding of links and dead-ends in the tree of man's and woman's evolution is far from complete and new discoveries may result in new branches and re-charted trees—progressively between ape-like and human. 

Keywords: anthropology, archaeology, primates, anatomy, human evolution, nomenclature, systematics.

References and more to explore
[1] The FreeDictionary >  Pithecanthropus erectus - former genus of primitive apelike men now Homo erectus: www.thefreedictionary.com/Pithecanthropus+erectus.
[2] Fossil Hominids FAQ at the talk.origins Archive > Biographies: Eugene Dubois: www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/edubois.html.
[3] Harry L. Shapiro: Peking Man. Simon and Schuster, New York, 1974; pp. 29-32.

Boulder nicknames

Exposed boulders found in the countryside are called erratics referring to their scattered localities. Such erratic rocks can be very large such as “The Big Rock” (Okotoks Erratic) in Alberta, which is part of the Foothills Erratics Train, a group of rocks carried to their current location by glacial ice movement during the ice age [1]. Erratics are found  in the once glaciated areas of North America between and north of New York and Vancouver as well as further south at higher altitudes in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada.

Sometimes, erratics are called rubbing stones because bison scratched up against them [2]. Another nickname is “leaverites,” meaning “leave'er right there.” In context with an article by Hannah Holmes about glacier pushed boulders, photographer Fritz Hoffmann shows glacial erratics at various places in the United States, including a parking lot in Mystic, Connecticut, and Olmsted Point in Yosemite National Park [2]. Not following the leaverites dogma, Frederick Law Olmstedt designed Central Park by rearranging some erratics. Now New Yorkers may climb these boulders or rub them.  

Erratics are also found in northern parts of Eurasia. In Germany, an erratic rock is called Findling. Centuries before Olmstedt, some Findlinge were rearranged to form ritual structures such as Hünengräber  (for example between Nobiskrug and Upjever near Oldenburg [3]). Hünengrab means “grave yard of giants,” indicating the belief that such heavy granite rocks can only have been moved around by giants or that giants are buried underneath them. How such organized boulder assemblies really came together is still a mystery.

Particular erratics in Germany have nicknames too, for example the red-colored shore-line boulder „Klein Helgoland” of the Baltic island of Rügen. „Klein Helgoland” means „little Helgoland,” referring to the small North Sea Island with the name Helgoland, consisting of red sandstone.

Keywords: natural history, landscapes, ice age, geography.

References and more to explore
[1] Government of Alberta > Alberta History > Historic Sites > Oktotoks Erratic - "The Big Rock" [history.alberta.ca/historicsites].
[2] Hannah Holmes and Fritz Hoffmann: How the Rock Got to Plymouth. National Geographic March 2012, 221 (3), pp. 90-105.
[3] V. Bleck: Die (bisher bekannte) Geschichte eines Findlings beim Nobiskrug [www.schripnest.de/korteland/findling.htm].
[4] Findlinge Rügen - Der Findling Uskam, bekannt als „Klein Helgoland” [www.ruegenmagic.de/Findlinge-Ruegen/Findling-Uskam.html].

Arabian surgeonfish named for the orange, scalpel-shaped patch near its tail

The Arabian surgeonfish (Acanthurus sohal) is named for the two orange, scalpel-shaped markings on the skin of both sides of its body near the pectoral fins and tail. In a recent National Geographic article, Kennedy Warne illustrates the marine life in the waters that surround the Arabian Peninsula: Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden and Red Sea [1]. The bountiful seas include coastal mangrove, coral and sea grass habitats. Warne showcases Arabian surgeonfish on a coral reef in the Red Sea with a glimpse at their combat and grazing behavior. 

The surgery theme is also reflected in the names that have been given to the Arabian surgeonfish in other languages [2]:
French: Chirurgien zébré
German: Rotmeer-Doktorfisch
Spanish: Pez cirujano cebra
Arabian: Fardh and Faridh

The French, German and Spanish terms for surgeon are chirurgien, Chirurg and cirujano, respectively. In German, a physician is called Arzt or Doktor: the latter word appears in Rotmeer-Doktorfisch. Rotmeer means Red Sea. The French and Spanish names focus on the patterns of white stripes, indicated by zébré and cebra for zebra. Unfortunately, my language skills don't go far enough to explain the origin and meaning of the words Fardh or Faridh. Maybe some expert aids with insight?

Keywords: Acanthuridae, Perciformes, ichthyology, comparative linguistics, translation, Arabian world, marine habitats. 

References and more to explore
[1] Kennedy Warne: The Seas of Arabia. National Geographic March 2012, 221 (3), pp.66-89
[byliner.com/kennedy-warne/stories/the-seas-of-arabia].
Note: Warne touches on the battle between different interests of the oil and gas industry,  fishermen and environmentalists, but hints at improving legal protection and marine guardianship taking shape in and between Arabian nation states.
[2] Arabian surgeonfish (Acanthurus sohal) | Factsheet: www.waza.org/en/zoo/choose-a-species/fishes/bony-fishes/acanthurus-sohal.

Contrived acronym in computer science and web development: Captcha

The term “captcha” was coined in 2000 by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas Hopper and John Langford of Carnegie Mellon University to denote a webpage element that is designed to tell humans and robots automatically apart: Captcha stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart [1]. A captcha image, consisting of randomly generated characters squiggling inside a rectangle, is often encountered as a required-to-do field within a submit form. Misrecognizing certain letters or symbols, a user may get the interrogation vibe when asked if she would mind to do it again (and again …). In a recent TechnoFile contribution, David Pogue highlights the functioning of captchas as efficiency barriers and suggests the following meaning: Computers Annoying People with Time-wasting Challenges that Howl for Alternatives [2].

In case you haven't found an alternative yet or are going to argue that captchas are nevertheless pretty good in capturing—or should I write captcharing—machines employed by misconducting humans, then some interesting websites and JavaScript code will be helpful. Client side as well as server side scripting has been explained and demonstrated  [3,4]. Further, dynamic generation of webpages that include forms with captcha images can be achieved with various programming languages such as PHP, ASP, JSP, Perl, Python and Ruby [5].

What about identifying and appreciating the honest human being, who is interacting with your site; instead of targeting potential spambots all the time? Ben Hunt discusses a promising approach [6]. Invisibility is not only the strategy of spammers and spies, but can be derived by user-friendly technology, implemented as a backstage wizard that lets humans submit, sign in and hack as long as they employ finger work. Open creativity instead of captchability!

References and resources to explore
[1] www.captcha.net and www.google.com/recaptcha/captcha.
[2] TechnoFiles by David Pogue: Time to Kill Off Captchas. How the bot-proofing of the Internet in bringing humans down. Sci. Am. March 2012, 306 (3), page 23 [www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=time-to-kill-off-captchas].
[3] Simple JavaScript CAPTCHA Generator: typicalwhiner.com/190/simple-javascript-captcha-generator/.
[4] Implementation of Captcha in JavaScript: www.codeproject.com/Articles/42842/Implementation-of-Captcha-in-Javascript.
[5] Free CAPTCHA-Service: captchas.net.
[6] Ben Hunt:  CAPTCHA Alternative? Try this Invisible Human Check for Web Form Validation [www.webdesignfromscratch.com/javascript/human-form-validation-check-trick].

Case sensitive URL distinction? Don't rely on it!

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) should not be case sensitive. At least, the domain-name part of the URL string is not interpreted with respect to case sensitivity [1].  Of course, you can type a URL into the provided field of your browser anyway you want. The same applies to the href attribute in an anchor tag of your HTML page. But the server that is hosting the targeted website may interpret file paths differently, depending on the occurrence of upper- and lower-case letters in an otherwise identical character sequence [2]. Unless you know exactly the set-up and configuration (Apache/Linux or other hosting software) of the server you are trying to access, you do not want to rely on either a case or non-case sensitive interpretation of your query.

Obviously, the common concern is to locate a website by not caring for upper- or lower-case letter typing and by avoiding  to end up with a “404 Error File Not Found” page [3,4]. Here, I like to emphasize the “mirror problem:” let us assume the server presence of multiple files, whose names vary only by selective capitalization. This problem is not restricted to website location, but is a general issue of targeted search and annotation. For example, in fields such as chemistry, case-sensitive presentation can be critical to distinguish between different materials: the symbols/formulae Co and CO represent the chemical element cobalt and carbon monoxide; CsI and CSi represent  cesium iodide and silicon carbide. Within each pair, notations differ by case only. Two files, named Co.htm and CO.htm, may not correctly be addressed or resolved as separate files, when located in the same directory. Such ambiguities are avoided—although generating overhead—by employing a more distinctive naming scheme. In our ThermoML file repository for molecular-composition-based open access of thermodynamic data and chemical publication hyperlinks, we choose a host-independent system of file names. For cobalt and carbon monoxide the files happen to be Co_aaa.htm and CO_aax.htm, respectively. The x is making the difference.

Keywords: name disambiguation, formula disambiguation, file names, identifiers, web hosting, Windows, Linux, UNIX, case standardization 

References and more on URL case sensitivity
[1] Bin-Blog: www.bin-co.com/blog/2007/10/case-sensitivity-in-urls/.
[2] wiseGEEK: www.wisegeek.com/are-urls-case-sensitive.htm.
[3] Ted Kuik: Case Sensitive URLs. Does capitalization matter? [www.coolnotions.com/Articles/Article_02.htm].
[4] Case-Sensitive URL's: www.infocellar.com/networks/internet/URL-case-sensitive.htm.