Mt. Erebus and Mt. Terror on Ross Island named after ships of an expedition led by Sir James Clark Ross

The two volcanoes Mt. Erebus and Mt. Terror on Ross Island—a volcanic formation in Antarctica's Ross Sea—were named in 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross after his expedition ships H.M.S. Erebus and H.M.S. Terror, respectively. H.M.S. Erebus was named after the Greek god of primeval darkness [1-3].

Mt. Erebus is an active stratovolcano, 12,448 ft (3,794 m) high. It is the most southerly active volcano on Earth. Although one of the coldest spots on our planet, Mt. Erebus also is a hot spot: literally, considering its lava lake and fumaroles; and research-wise, considering the interesting occurrence of mosses and microbes, whose origin still is debated. Mt. Erebus belongs to the Pacific Ring of Fire. The New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology maintains the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO) on Ross Island, next to Scott Base, which is operated by New Zealand to support field research [4,5].

Mt. Erebus' smaller companion, Mt. Terror with an elevation of 10,702 ft (3,262 m), is a (dormant or extinct?) basaltic shield volcano, flanked by cinder cones [6].

Both volcanoes have been listed as spectacular skiing destinations with over 10,000 ft (3,000 m) of vertically skiable slopes for downhill enthusiasts [7]. Olivia Judson, in her Erebus article [1] , describes the heavy outfit that researcher on Ross Island wear to protect themselves from extreme weather conditions. What kind of precautions would skiers take?  Thinking of skiing Mt. Terror downslope, I get terrified! 

Keywords:  earth science, geography, locality names, volcanology, mythology, microbiology, history.

References and more to explore
[1] Olivia Judson: Life in an Icy Inferno. National Geographic July 2012, 222 (1), 94-115 [ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/07/mount-erebus/judson-text].
[2] Encyclopedia Britannica: Ross Island [www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510133/Ross-Island].
[3] Encyclopedia Mythica: Erebus by Ron Leadbetter [www.pantheon.org/articles/e/erebus.html].
[4] World Organization of Volcano Observatories: Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory [www.wovo.org/1900_02.html].
[5] Antarctica New Zealand: Scott Base [www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/scott-base].
[6] Oregon State/Education: Mount Terror, Ross Island, Antarctica [volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/antarctica/terror.html].
[7] Skiing the Pacific Ring of Fire and Beyond: Mount Erebus [www.skimountaineer.com/ROF/ROF.php?name=Erebus] and  Mount Terror [www.skimountaineer.com/ROF/ROF.php?name=Terror].

From a temporary designator to a recognized chemical element name: ununhexium becomes livermorium

The chemical element with atomic number 116 was until now addressed as ununhexium (Uuh) using the temporary designator and three-letter atomic symbol system recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).  A few days ago, IUPAC approved the name livermorium to replace the temporary designator ununhexium. The element symbol is Lv.

The name of this synthetic element honors the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, which, along with the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Russia, has been involved in the discovery and production of various superheavy elements, including flerovium and livermorium [1].

The most stable isotope known today is livermorium-293, ²⁹³Lv, with has a half-life of about 60 ms. Less stable isotopes include ²⁹²Lv, ²⁹¹Lv and ²⁹⁰Lv [2].

Livermorium's “left neighbor” —the element with atomic number 115, ununpentium, with the temporary symbol Uup—is provisionally named eka-bismuth, since it finds its place below the group 15 (Va) element bismuth in the periodic table. Following this Mendeleev-type notation, livermorium can be considered as eka-polonium (its historical name). Livermorium's “next-to-left neighbor ” with atomic number 114 (formerly ununquadium) is flerovium (Fl). The name flerovium also has just been approved officially by IUPAC [see ununquadium becomes flerovium].

Reference
[1] Adam Mann: 2 New Elements Named on Periodic Table. May 31, 2012 [www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/05/flerovium-livermorium].
[2] Scribd: Livermorium [www.scribd.com/doc/95712552/Livermorium].

From a temporary designator to a recognized chemical element name: ununquadium becomes flerovium

The chemical element with atomic number 114 was until now addressed as ununquadium (Uuq) using the temporary designator and three-letter atomic symbol system recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).  A few days ago, IUPAC approved the name flerovium to replace the temporary designator ununquadium. The element symbol is Fl.

Mistaking Fl as the symbol for fluorine, which simply is F, should be unlikely, since the latter is in use for so long. Further, flerovium will not play any major role in composing compounds and writing their formulae, because it is a radioactive chemical element with isotopes exhibiting half-lifes of only a few seconds or less.

The name of this synthetic element honors the Russian physicist Georgiy N. Flerov and also the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Russia, a facility named after Flerov and known for its production of  various superheavy elements, including flerovium [1].

Flerovium's “left neighbor” —the element with atomic number 113, ununtrium, with the temporary symbol Uut—is provisionally named eka-thallium (no permanent IUPAC-approved name yet), since it finds its place below the group 13 (IIIa) element thallium in the periodic table. Following this Mendeleev-type notation, flerovium can be considered as eka-lead or eka-plumbum. Flerovium's “next-to-left neighbor ” with atomic number 112 (formerly ununbium) is officially named copernicium (Cn) [see naming history of copernicium].

Reference
[1] Adam Mann: 2 New Elements Named on Periodic Table. May 31, 2012 [www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/05/flerovium-livermorium].

A bacterium named after chemical transformations that it supports: Dehalococcoides ethenogenes

Dehalococcoides ethenogenes is an anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium (phylum: Chloroflexi, class: Dehalococcoidetes)  [1].  Its name, Dehalococcoides ethenogenes, hints at the chemical transformations that it can perform: dehalogenation of halogenated ethene compounds to ethene.

Halogenated solvents such as chlorinated ethenes are environmental pollutants, often with a characteristic of long-term persistence. The discovery that D. ethenogenes can help to convert toxic chemicals into less harmful ones is of interest for the treatment of soil and groundwater, when contaminated with such halogenated hydrocarbons. It has been demonstrated, for example, that D. ethenogenes (strain 195)—transferred into an optimized growth medium—completely decomposes tetrachloroethene by reductive dechlorination [2,3].

An interesting question is if D. ethenogenes evolved in contaminated soil environments and developed the metabolic capability to transform chlorinated hydrocarbons for its own benefit. If so, this would be an example for “natural selection on speed” [4].

Keywords: microbiology, bioremediation, metabolic pathway, reductive dehalogenation, terminology.

References and more to explore
[1] Microbe Wiki: Dehalococcoides ethenogenes [microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Dehalococcoides_ethenogenes].
[2] X. Maymó-Gatell, Y.-t. Chien, J. M. Gossett and S. H. Zinder: Isolation of a Bacterium That Reductively Dechlorinates Tetrachloroethene to Ethene. Science 1997, 276 (5318), pp. 1568-1571. DOI: 10.1126/science.276.5318.1568. 
[3] X. Maymó-Gatell, T. Anguish and S. H. Zinder: Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Ethenes and 1,2-Dichloroethane by “Dehalococcoides ethenogenes” 195. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1999, 65 (7), pp. 3108-3113 [aem.asm.org/content/65/7/3108.abstract].
[4] Tim Friend: The Third Domain. The Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C., 2007; page 248.

A term in aquatic microbiology: picocyanobacteria

Picocyanobacteria (plural of picocyanobacterium) are tiny cyanobacteria—less than two micrometers in size [1].  The prefix pico is derived from the Italian word piccolo for small. The size of picocyanobacteria cells is smaller than that of typical cyanobacteria cells, which ranges from one to forty micrometers [2].

Picocyanobacteria occur in freshwater and marine environments. They are photosynthetic organisms. Their diversity and distribution in dependence on light penetration through water layers and also on other factors is of great interest in ecology. For example, the abundance and composition of picocyanobacterial assemblages has been studied in many lakes of varying trophic state in relation to biomass and dissolved matter [3,4]. A two-year flow-cytometry investigation and in situ experiments in Lake Tahoe revealed seasonal patterns and clear temporal and spatial partitioning between picophytoplankton communities (picocyanobacteria and picoeukaryotes) [4].

Picocyanobacteria are the dominant microbes in the sunlit epipelagic zone of open oceans [5,6]. According to Tim Friend, “these little guys are of tremendous ecological importance” [5].  He informs that various institutions and research centers began sequencing the genomes of marine picocyanobacteria in 2003. Insight in picocyanobacterial metabolisms is critical for our understanding of global environmental and climate changes. Picocyanobacteria species—for example, those in the Synechococcaceae family—have an important role in carbon fixation and nutrient cycling in diverse marine ecosystems [7].

Keywords: marine microbiology, nanobiology, limnology, oceanography, microbial ecology, terminology.

References and more to explore
[1] Wiktionary: picocyanobacterium [en.wiktionary.org/wiki/picocyanobacterium].
[2] Cyanobacteria: huey.colorado.edu/cyanobacteria/about/cyanobacteria.php.
[3] F. R. Pick: The abundance and composition of freshwater picocyanobacteria in relation to light penetration. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1991, 36 (7), 1457-1462 [www.jstor.org/stable/2837651].
[4] Monika Winder:  Photosynthetic picoplankton dynamics in Lake Tahoe: temporal and spatial niche partitioning among prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. J. Plankton Res. 2009, 31 (11), pp. 1307-1320 [plankton.ucdavis.edu/pdf/Winder_JPR09.pdf].
[5] Tim Friend: The Third Domain. The Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C., 2007; page 143.
[6] The Darwin Project: Selective pressures on picocyanobacterial nitrogen use [darwinproject.mit.edu/?page_id=16].
[7] S. Huang, S. W. Wilhelm, H. R. Harvey, K. Taylor, N. Jiao and F. Chen: Novel lineages of Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus in the global oceans. The ISME Journal 2012, 6, pp. 285-297. DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2011.106.

Ignicoccus islandicus, a species of archaea named by Karl Stetter

Ignicoccus islandicus is an archaea species living in marine hydrothermal vents such as those underwater fissures found in the Kolbeinsey Ridge north of Iceland, where this microbe was discovered (hence the epithet islandicus). Ignococci are hyperthermophiles. They are of great interest since they “play” host to even smaller archaea—some of the smallest organisms known: Nanoarchaeum equitans. These nano-sized microbes “sit”as parasites on the surface of ignicocci and also contain copies of parts of their host's genes within their own genome.

The World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) provides data on the taxonomy of I. islandicus [1]:
Kingdom: Archaea
Phylum: Crenarchaeota
Class: Thermoprotei
Order: Desulfurococcales
Family: Desulfurococcaceae
Genus: Ignococcus
Species: I. islandicus (also in this genus: I. hospitalis, I. pacificus)

Tim Friend describes a presentation by German microbiologist Karl Otto Stetter at a conference in Yellowstone National Park (another hot spot of extremophile discoveries), during which Stetter talked about research on N. equitans, I. islandicus as well as the symbiotic (or parasitic) nanoarchaea-ignicoccus relationship:

Using the two-person research submersible Geo, samples were taken of sandy sediment and vent fluids at temperature around 90 degrees C [at the Kolbeinsey Ridge]. Black smoker samples obtained during a dive made on the submersible Alvin at a vent in in the Pacific also were analyzed. Initially, the samples from the mid-Atlantic ridge [Kolbeinsey Ridge] revealed a new genus and species of archaea, which Stetter named Ignicoccus islandicus. Electron microscopy photos taken at Stetter's lab of an additional Ignicoccus isolate revealed tiny strange spheres attached to its surface. This was shocking. No such thing had been seen on archaea. By culturing the organisms together Stetter was able to isolate Nanoarchaea then look for segments of its RNA. It does not possess the similar ribosomal RNA signature of other archaea. Tim Friend, 2007 [2].

Keywords: microbiology, nanobiology, hyperthermophile, crenarchaeon, nomenclature, taxonomy, history.

References and more to explore
[1] WoRMS taxon details: Ignicoccus islandicus Huber, Burggraf, Mayer, Wyschkony, Rachel & Stetter, 2000:
www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=573489.
[2] Tim Friend: The Third Domain. The Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C., 2007; pages 121 to 124.

An archaeum originally misclassified as bacterium: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

The microbe Sulfolobus acidocaldarius was isolated from a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park in 1972 and originally misclassified as bacterium [1,2]. Thomas D. Brook and his team described the new genus Sulfolobus as sulfur-oxidizing bacteria with generally spherical cells producing frequent lobes—hence the term Sulfolobus. The isolated microbes were further characterized as acidophilic, living at an optimal pH of 2-3 and optimal temperatures of 70-75 °C—hence the epithet acidocaldarius. Microbes thriving at such temperatures are called hyperthermophiles.

About five years later the archaea domain was proposed by Carl Woese and George Fox. Following detailed genome studies, S. acidocaldarius was then taxonomically classified as belonging to the phylum or kingdom  crenarchaeota in the domain archaea. S. acidocaldarius serves now as a model organism for the Crenarchaeota and is used for many studies in archaeal biology [3,4].

Keywords: microbiology, hyperthermophile, crenarchaeon, nomenclature, taxonomy, history.

References and more to explore
[1] T. D. Brook, K. M. Brock, R. T. Belly and R. L. Weiss:  Sulfolobus: A new genus of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria living at pH and high temperature. Archives of Microbiology 1972, 84 (1), pp. 54-68. DOI: 10.1007/BF00408082.
[2] Tim Friend: The Third Domain. The Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C., 2007; pages 110 and 111.
[3]  Microbe Wiki: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius [microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Sulfolobus_acidocaldarius].
[4] L. Chen et al.: The genome Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, a model organism of the Crenarcheota. Journal of Bacteriology 2005, 187 (14), pp. 4992-4999 [www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15995215].